Genotyping and Slavery

Genotyping and sequencing are two ways of reading information from DNA, but the technology and the results you get are very different. Think of your DNA as a book, genotyping would be like choosing a specific word from a single page. Once you choose a word, you are limited to gaining the information that the one word on that one page can give you. If you ever want to learn about a word on a different page that you didn't choose to have genotyped, you would need to be genotyped again. By contrast, sequencing is like reading whole sentences. We get more information and more context, all 22,000 genes and then some. So from one small sample, we can get insight on family history, health, and even fitness and nutrition. 

 

The famously known 23andme biotechnology company, specializing in obtaining insight on personal genetic information through genotyping, has turned their attention to the African American genome and if it holds any information on slave practices. An article (1) explains that they obtained genetic samples from consenting customers who lived in African and South American countries bordering the Atlantic Ocean, specifically focusing on the West Coast of Africa, and the eastern coastline of North, Central and South America. With these samples, they compare the IBD (identity by descent) distinguished by the chromosomal similarities in Americans of African descent and Africans. With each passing generation, these IBD sections get split, but with technology they can calculate who the most recent common ancestor is. What they found through this was that enslaved women contributed a lot more to the gene pool of modern day African-Americans than enslaved women, which suggests that there was a history of sexual exploitation of enslaved women. The data collected shows that in some regions “roughly 15 African women had children for each African man”, even though men were the majority of the population. The ratio isn’t as high in other regions with a high slave population, but it is still skewed heavily toward women having more children.

 

As 23andme uses genotyping (2), we can only read into a small part of the story regarding slavery and its lingering effects. If sequencing the entire human genome is made available at an affordable cost, we can reveal more information on what occured back then and furthermore how epigenetics can still affect African Americans today.

            

 

Posted by: Timinte Abraham (1)                       

 

References

1. https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/african-american-genomes-yield-insight-into-slavery-practices-67766

A Pill to Stop the Spread of Covid?

With Covid still affecting the lives of many, one often wonders if there will be an end to this pandemic. Fortunately, companies like Pfizer, Moderna, and J&J have produced live saving therapeutics in the form of a vaccine. Specifically, the MRNA vaccine has been protecting individuals from significant health effects and keeping many out of the hospital. One challenge with this is the new variants that are starting to emerge. Some fully vaccinated people are having breakthrough cases where they are still getting affected by the virus. Another challenge is that there are countries who do not have access to adequate health care. They don’t have ways to administer, store, or pay for the vaccines. This means that millions of people are left without being protected from a virus that has already taken the lives of many. The question becomes, is there anything else that can be done or alternatives that could work better?           

This article is written about how Merck and Ridgeback took on the challenge by being one of the first in the process of developing an oral antiviral treatment for Covid. Their motivation was because current treatments options require access to a healthcare facility. Antiviral treatments that can be taken in the form of a pill are critically needed. All the tools to help possibly stop the spread of the virus are critical. This gives countries who have limited access to healthcare a chance. In addition, current results are showing this pill may be effective against variants of the virus including delta.

 

In the most recent phase three study, it has been shown to be promising. By taking the drug called molnupiravir, twice a day for 5 days, the risk of death or hospitalization is reduced by approximately 50%. Having a vaccine as well as an oral antiviral puts the world in a much better place than it currently is as more individuals would be protected. With this promising news, Merck will be looking soon to submit an application for emergency authorization. This would be a dramatic step in the right direction in lowering the effects this pandemic has had. Additionally, this is being done through a tiered pricing approach which means that the price of the drug will be different depending on the country’s ability to pay for it.

 

Companies like Merck, Ridgeback and others producing therapeutic options to lessen the effect of Covid are the leaders in changing the world. They are putting all their time and resources into providing a way to slow the spread of the virus. Without them, most of the world would still be in lockdown. They are paving the way to create a future where the virus isn’t limiting the lives of many.

 

Source: https://www.washingtonpost.com/health/2021/10/01/pill-to-treat-covid/

 

Posted by: Z. Conant (1)

New COVID-19 Vaccine Could Prove to be the Most Effective Virus Protection & Prevention

 

COVID-19 has been the ongoing science topic discussed today, from treatment to research to economic impact, every aspect of the world is being affected by this mass virus. While there are many studies of vaccines, a new vaccine by China’s “Clover Biopharmaceuticals” has proved to have a reason for standing out amongst the other vaccines scientists have been creating. 

This vaccine has given protection against five different variants of the strain, including the new destructive delta variant. It has also been shown to lower risk of disease in those who have, and have not been infected with COVID-19 before. Since the vaccine is based on SARS-CoV-2 protein, instead of mRNA products, the vaccine can be refrigerated instead of frozen. This shot also contains something called spike, an immune stimulant produced in hamster ovaries, which helps in boosting those who receive the vaccine immune system.

In Clover’s trial, 30,000 citizens from four different continents were observed after their vaccine was given to them. Those who did not have COVID-19 before had an efficacy of 67.2%, an efficacy of 83.7% regarding moderate to severe disease, and 100% efficacy when looking at hospitalization & death. Efficacy against the delta variant was 78.7%, while efficacy against a variant called Mu was only 58.6%.

For those who have had COVID-19 before, there was an efficacy of 64.2% in preventing another infection of COVID-19. This just so happens to be the first efficacy study that has been able to prove the importance of being vaccinated even when being exposed. Even though this is still a work in progress, this could be another big breakthrough for SARS-CoV-19 immunizations.

https://www.science.org/content/article/new-chinese-vaccine-could-bolster-global-arsenal

 

Posted by Emma Alderman-Shapiro (1)

Do We Eat Pineapples or Do Pineapples Eat Us?

 Have you ever cut open a fresh pineapple from the grocery store, took a bite, and then your lips and tongue start to tingle? Same! The beautiful and tasty pineapples or Ananas comosus is a tropical plant that is widespread across the world. Being a plant, it contains protein enzymes that help the overall breakdown of proteins into usable amino acids through chemical reactions. One of the enzymes that a pineapple contains in the stem and fruit is called bromelain. Bromelain is one of the reasons why eating pineapples makes your tongue tingle. 

   

In an article, “Properties and Therapeutic Application of Bromelain: A Review” written by Ajay Kumar et al., they discuss the type of enzyme bromelain is, how it has been used, and how it can be extracted for other health related issues. They write that bromelain is considered a part of the enzyme group called protease. Proteases are protein digesting enzymes, and so they can break apart proteins found in the body and make it into utilizable parts. In this case, bromelain cuts protein chains at cysteine, an amino acid. Bromelain function doesn’t stop at just digesting proteins when eating pineapples. Studies have shown eating bromelain helps with blood pressure, arthritis, inhibiting cancerous cell growth and more. It is a little trickier to extract the enzyme because there is a lot it can do, and so the functions of bromelain must be first understood to get the full use of the enzyme for other health issues. 

So, the tingly sensation a person feels after eating some fresh pineapple is due to the proteolytic activity of the bromelain enzyme. There is protein lining our mouths and tongues, such as receptors and so the enzyme is acting upon it and breaking it down. Kind of like a meat tenderizer. It also doesn’t help that the pineapple fruit over the world is acidic. So, there are a couple of factors as to why pineapples ‘do eat us’ but we should continue, despite the tingly sensation, to eat pineapples for the benefits that they offer to the overall well-being of humans.

 

Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3529416/

 

Posted by: Kristina Baldeo (1) 

Urban Darwinism

There tends to be a connotation with the word “evolution” that it’s a strictly natural process that only occurs in wild, rural environments. This is not the case; as our rapidly growing populations require the construction of more urban centers we inevitably build upon the niches of other species, yet many of them still avoid extinction. Natural selection can still occur in our cities over generations of species as new adaptations are being acquired within urban developments. Random genetic mutations may be deemed advantageous for survival in an isolated population of a species separate from its wild population, and if a trait becomes more common over generations the species becomes more genetically divers.

Evolutionary biologist Menno Schilthuizen has been studying the unprecedented influences humans put on the genes of plants and animals. He is focused on the fast-paced natural selection that species in cities and suburbs undergo to survive in ubiquitous human presence; he recently wrote a book about various urban evolutionary changes titled Darwin Comes to Town. Examples of these rapid changes within species are fascinating. Some populations of city birds have raised the pitch of their singing to a higher level than their wild cousins to adjust to traffic noise. Central Park white-footed mice have evolved two genes that allow for easier digestion of fatty foods littered by passing humans and for resistance against aflatoxin; these genes are not seen in other isolated city mice populations.

Caribbean crested anole lizards are undergoing physical changes to lamellae in their feet to better maneuver urban structures; skyscraper windows are much smoother than tree bark. An evolutionary genetics experiment was conducted that compared the ability of a forest crested anole and an urban crested anole to climb a concrete surface, and the forest crested anole was significantly worse at scaling the surface. City American cliff swallows wing’s are becoming shorter to more quickly vertically ascend to dodge oncoming traffic. Southern California bobcats are isolated into four sections by two major highways. Their isolation resulted in mange resistant genes. After an epidemic the surviving bobcats of one particular section were able to pass on their resistant genes; if interbreeding between populations had taken place the resistant genes may have been swamped from the other population’s genes. San Diego dark-eyed junco’s white tails and dark heads were changing in the city. In the forest the white tails and dark heads were of males that were more aggressive and successful in defending territory. However, in the city there's plenty of food, and less of a need for aggressive males to protect nests but more of a need for males to help raise their young. Consequently, the preference of urban females are changing. In the city white tails are disappearing and dark heads are becoming less striking.

 

These various isolated populations of different species were able to undergo random genetic changes to better suit the survival of future generations in the pressing presence of urban human activity and development. However, this does not mean that all species adapt because we don't observe the species that didn't. With very quick evolution comes many deaths within a species and so the takeaway is not that nature is completely fine in our rapidly urbanizing world, but rather it’s an observation on how evolution is affected. To preserve most of the earth’s biodiversity, untouched areas need to be protected for species that need untouched areas to not go extinct.

 

Posted by “Declan Downing” (1).

Save the Bees

 Bees are way more important than many people realize. Honeybees are important poillinators. In fact, bees pollinate over 75% of the foods that we eat. Without bees, many of the foods that we eat would not be pollinated. Bees also produce honey, which is used to sweeten things.

Recently, scientists have discovered a new compound found in plants that may protect them from a virus. This type of virus is known as a varroa mite. Varroa mites are parasites that enter the larva of honey bees. This parasite is also known as the deformed wing virus. The parasites affect the development of the honey bees' wings, which affects their ability to fly. Other studies have found varroa mites to affect the bees memory and learning ability, thus causing them to not find their way back to the hive after foraging. Pesticides can be used to prevent and treat varroa mites, however, this is something that many beekeepers do not want in their honey. Instead, scientists looked for a natural compound that could treat bees infected with varroa mites.

A study at the national Taiwan University found that varoa mites inhibit the expression of genes that affect nerve signal transmission and other genes that affect both memory and learning in bees. This study found that sodium butyrate, or NaB, can increase the expression of many genes, including those related to learning and immune response. This study was performed by feeding honey bees sugar with high levels of sodium butyrate for one week. After this week, the bees were infected with varroa mites. They found that after five days, 90% of bees were still alive, compared to the bees in the control study who were not fed NaB. The scientists also performed this study on a bee farm and found that 80% of bees fed sodium.

butyrate of bees before geting infected with varroa mites found theur way home after being infected. This data is comparable to bees who were not infected with varroa mites.

There are many different ways that you can help to save the bees. This includes planting bee and pollinator friendly plants including. Some of these plants you use daily without even realizing they are bee friendly! These plants include thyme, rosemary, chives, mint, sage, lavender, and more! Flowers that bees like include sunflowers, zinnia, verbena, and more. Using less pesticides will also help the bees. Having your own hive can also help to increase the bee population. In fact, there are many grants available to help fund those looking to get into beekeeping. Buying locally made products that contain honey and beeswax are great ways to support people in your community with beehives. Websites like the Bee Conservancy are great resources that include many different things you can do to save the bees!

Posted by: Sarah Conant (1)
Article source: https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2021/09/210928110235.htm

The Effects of Climate Change on Coral Reefs

 Climate change has shown to have a clearly negative affect on the ocean and its organisms due to the increase in ocean temperatures. Coral reefs are of the organisms that are negatively affected by the rise in sea temperature. As described in an article by Live Science, Coral reefs are essentially made up of the remnants of ancient organisms, known as corals. The hard exoskeleton of coral reefs is created when the corals extract calcium carbonate from the ocean water in order to protect its soft bodies. Over time, the individual corals, known as polyps, attach themselves to the surface of a dead coral where they construct their own exoskeleton, ultimately creating a massive structure that is home to many organisms.

Many organisms rely on the corals for nutrients, a home, and for protection. One organism in particular has a symbiotic relationship with the corals, known as zooxanthellae. Their mutually beneficial relationship protects and provides carbon dioxide for the zooxanthellae, and energy as well as their lively colors for the coral polyps. Though, the recent rise in carbon dioxide and other greenhouses gases as well as the rise in ocean water temperatures has threatened this relationship. The rising temperatures are causing the corals to expel the zooxanthellae losing their main energy source and bright colors, leaving behind the bland, white exoskeleton, a process called bleaching.

 

The bleaching of corals is detrimental to the survival of many ocean organisms from algae to schools of fish. As stated in an article by TIME magazine, “Reefs occupy just 1% of the world’s marine environment, but they provide a home to a quarter of marine species—including a unique set of fish, turtles and algae. Many of these species could be lost permanently, but with temperatures only expected to rise in the coming decades chances are slim that reefs will be able to rebuild from scratch”. The loss of corals and the species they provide for essentially creates a domino effect in the food chain and furthermore the survival of many other species, even us humans. Further explained in the TIME article, “The death of coral also represents a huge loss—as much as $375 billion annually—for the local economies along the globe they support. Reefs support local tourism and the commercial fishing industry. They also protect coastlines from flooding during extreme storms”. 

 

Scientists predict that the bleaching and loss of marine life will only get worse in the future as climate change shows to be on the path to mass extinction if we humans don’t fix the damage that we essentially caused. The mass bleaching of coral reefs is a clear sign of what’s to come in the future if we don’t take action.

 

Sources 

What Are Coral Reefs?

https://www.livescience.com/40276-coral-reefs.html

A Most Beautiful Death: An underwater investigation of coral bleaching in the south pacific

https://time.com/coral/

Posted by Brianna Bailey (1)