Antibiotics for All

Many of us living in the Western world have had our fair share of experiences with antibiotics: you get sick, you take the pills, you get better. But that reality comes with the steep requirement that you, the person taking them, have a fully functional immune system. What would happen to someone that lacked that and were entirely immunocompromised? As it turns out, even the most commonplace of infections could prove fatal to those types of individuals. Even more shocking, those same antibiotics that you or I take, do little to nothing for people suffering immune deficiency.

Traditionally, if someone with immune deficiency falls ill to an infection, from the moment of the diagnosis onward, the clock is ticking. It takes extreme detail and precise targeting of the microbiological infection to give the patient a hope of surviving. Under many circumstances, death is an expected outcome. Up until recently, it wasn't know of that there existed other routes of treatment, and people just wish for the best with what medicine was available. A new compound derived from eushearilide may be the answer to those wishes. It has been seen in recent studies to possess antibacterial and antifungal properties, capable of treating infections of the lung, meningitis, and encephalitis.

This compound, usharelide, formed from 23-demethyleushearilide, has two variations that have been documented to hold these antimicrobial properties and can be used to help those with acute and time sensitive infections, such as patients with compromised immune systems. A particularly interesting observation too is that it has been shown to be effective against Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) which is actually resistant against methicillin. Usharelide, being effective against this antibiotic-resistant and extremely lethal infection (for those with immune deficiency), is already showing its extreme potential for use and value in the medical world. An issue still, however, is that many of the properties of this fungal derived treatment are still unknown and little research is being done in the scientific community to uncover them. Many people and professionals in the medical community are still ignorant to the potentially life-saving abilities of this compound despite it first being observed over a decade ago. Like many things in the scientific world, this potentially life-changing for many discovery, should definitely be more pursued by research so that the world may one day be able to fully benefit from all of its untapped potentials.

Posted by Brian Lee (2)

Are Plants Capable of Memory?

To us, memory is almost instantly associated with the brain-and rightly so. It is where memories are formed, changed, and recalled. Any stimulus creates a series of neuron activity. In the case of memory recollection, specific groups of neurons are reactivated in response to a specific stimulus. However, the plasticity of the brain also means the synapses involved can be changed, removed, or added to in these pathways. But what about organisms without brains? Are they capable of forming and recalling memories like animals? Monica Gagliano from the University of Western Australia thinks she may have found an organism that can. 

Photo by blickwinkel, Alamy

Mimosa pudica is a plant commonly known for its highly-sensitive leaves. The slightest touch or movement can trigger them to curl together. Gagliano wanted to investigate this phenomenon further to see if plants could use memory to change their behavior. To do this, she built a device that dropped potted plants roughly six inches onto a piece of foam. The height was not nearly enough to cause physical harm, yet the M. pudica were still disturbed enough to close their leaves. She repeated the drop 60 times in a row for each of her plants. Surprisingly, by the end of the 60 drops, M. pudica kept their leaves completely open. And they continued to show this behavior after waiting as many as 28 days between drop series. It is also interesting to note that while the vertical drop would no longer signal M. pudica leaves to close, moving the plants abruptly in other directions would. 

These results hint at the possibility that memory retention may not only be unique to the neural pathways found in the brain. Plants do not have brains, but they “‘do possess a sophisticated… signaling network.’” Gagliano has been dismissed by some biologists who are skeptical about the idea of intelligent plants. Others do not like the idea of further blurring the line between plant and animal. What do you think? To me, since what we know is always changing in the scientific community, I’m interested to see if anyone else attempts to elaborate on these new findings.

Posted by "Meagan Gustafson" (2)

A New Kind of RoboCop

Video Obtained from NYU Tandon School of Engineering

A New Kind of RoboCop

As I passed through campus today I noticed a sign detailing the negative effects that the emerald ash borer, an invasive species to North America, has upon the ash tree. In the lives of many, invasive species are never even seen as something more than a passing thought. This method of thinking is essentially quite dangerous as it severely minimizes the environmental havoc that these species promote. Thus, the need to remove these species is critical in order to ensure the survival of native species and ecosystems. However, as many know already, invasive species control seems like an impossible issue to tackle, even more so in aquatic ecosystems. In an effort to alleviate this situation, Professor Maurizio Porfiri of NYU conducted a study that used biomimetic robots to modify the behavior of an invasive species known as the mosquitofish.

Using robots for population control may sound frightening and complex at first glance, but the general principle behind this study is actually quite simple. By using a robotic replica that mimics the appearance and behavior of a specific predator, researchers can provoke a constant stress response in a target species. This stress response could trigger a number of physiological changes, such as avoidance behaviors, which are directly linked to losses of an organism's stored energy and lower rates of reproduction. By mimicking a largemouth bass, Porfiri hoped to induce a similar kind of response in a small population of mosquitofish.

For six consecutive weeks, Porfiri and his team forced small groups of mosquitofish to encounter a robotic largemouth bass for 15 minutes. As a real bass would, the “behavior” of the robot changed with each trial and even responded in real-time to the actions of the live fish. Over the course of this experiment, the researchers tracked both the interactions that occurred between the robotic/live fish and the length and weight of the live specimen each week. After compiling weeks worth of data, Porifi found that there was a positive correlation between the degree of biomimicry in the robotic fish and the level of stress response behaviors exhibited in the living organism. Some of these behaviors included not swimming, being hesitant to explore, and unpredictable movement patterns. Similarly, the fish that were exposed to a higher degree of biomimicry also displayed the highest levels of physiological stress (length and weight loss). By having forced the mosquitofish into a constant state of stress Porfiri claimed that biomimetic robot had a lasting effect on the target species making the fish less likely to survive for long periods of time and devote energy towards future reproduction. 

While this is the first study of its nature, the concrete evidence it provides has major implications when it comes to finding a sustainable solution to wildlife population control. If we were to find a way to implement this in the wild, we could essentially manipulate the behavior of a particular species at will and control certain populations that are deemed risk worthy. This would allow for maximum biodiversity to be achieved as certain invasive populations could be managed by researchers to prevent them from competing with the native species. This method of population control also abolishes the need for traditional chemical methods of organism removal that might have unwanted side effects on the ecosystem or other species. Although, while I doubt that the idea of using biomimetic robots for managing invasive species is going to be implemented in the natural world, this study is still a fresh, unique, and fascinating take on how to handle a problem as old as life itself.

Posted by James Levangie (2)

The Disappearance of Birds

Photo by Ian Forsyth/Getty Images

When you think about birds, what is the first thing that pops into your head?

“If I only could fly like a bird,” “I hate pigeons” or “There are so many of them.” Whatever your first thought is, it is probably not that we are currently experiencing a significant loss of bird numbers. To be precise, in the last 50 years, over 3 billion birds disappeared from the North American continent.  A new study, published by Canada’s Environmental Agency and the U.S. Geological Survey indicates that since 1970, the number of birds dwindled by almost 30  percent.

One of the main reasons for such a forceful disappearance is the invasion of humans into bird breeding grounds. The vast expanse of agriculture had a significant impact on grassland species because pesticides kill insects on which birds feed and living space like shrubs and hedges are plowed. However, this practice has further reaching implications than the staggering effect on birds. It disturbs entire ecosystems. Birds can be predators or prey. They keep pests in place or preyed upon by other mammals.  They distribute plant seeds or pollinate flowers, which is the main form of reproduction for many plant species. Thus, the disappearance of birds brings a disbalance into the ecosystems and can cause the rise or fall of many species, which in turn has unknown consequences for us.

Though agriculture and habitat loss can be seen as the main reasons, many other factors, produced by humans, need to be also held accountable. Such as light pollution from cities, which can disorient birds or buildings (particularly windows) in which they can crash in. Windmills account additionally for some small numbers. Those factors particularly seem to be the reason for the loss of such birds like warblers, swallows, and other common birds. However, these are usually more resilient than their relatives in the “wild” and should actually compensate for the losses, which does currently not occur.

Fortunately, scientists say it is not a crisis -yet. However, the continues monitoring of bird populations should be used as an essential indicator of environmental status. Likely, this is an easier task than one might think.  Birds are well monitored, due to wealth of data collected by enthusiasts and annual counts. On a positive note, the published study mentions an incline in some wetland species, like ducks or geese. That all said, the next time you encounter a bird, you may want to ask yourself if its population is doing all right and what it means to the environment.

Posted by “Gene” (2).

Eye Have The Power!

Eye Have The Power!

Have anyone ever watched Thor Ragnarok? (Spoilers ahead) Well there is a part of the movie where Thor has one of his eyes sliced out in a battle and is unable to see with his left eye. However, in the next movie he is given a robotic eye that functions exactly like a normal eye, thus returning his vision. What if this was possible in the real world, is there a way for us to be able to replace a human eye without any difference in function?

As it turns out, scientists are already working on creating a prosthetic eye using a neuroprosthetic that could one day replicate the performance of a human eye. According to this article, the neuroprosthetic manipulates neurons involved in sensory pathways by circumventing damaged neurons and creating a new pathway that is able to transmit electrical signals to the undamaged neurons. These signals would then theoretically travel through the central nervous system to the brain where the data can be processed.

In the case of the human eye, the neurons that are being targeted are photoreceptors. Photoreceptors are responsible for converting light into electrical signals, which are processed by the brain. If they are damaged then there is no way for a person to see clearly. This is where the neuroprosthetic comes into play. According to this article, the prosthetic would use a pair of glasses equipped with a camera to record images and translate those images into light and dark pixels. These pixels are then converted into electrical signals which would be sent to an electrode implant located behind the retina. This electrode would then stimulate the surrounding photoreceptors, which would send a electrical signal to the brain where vision is processed. Essentially, this prosthesis would act as an artificial photoreceptor that takes in light and translates that light into electrical signals like a normal photoreceptor.

As many of you can see, this technology could be very useful in helping people that have impaired vision or are blind. However, according to this article, the prosthetic is only able to translate images into dark and light pixels. This means that a person wearing this device would only be able to see the difference between light and dark. While this may seem useless, many people would love to be able to have access to this kind of technology. The future is bright in the field of neuroprosthetics, this technology is still very new, but the bionic eye will provide people with the gift of vision and allow them to possibly live a normal lives. If the new eye is successful, this could open up numerous possibilities for this field, and scientists could even start to begin to look at using neuroprosthetics as a means to solving other problems involving the nervous system. In conclusion, the idea of a fully functional prosthetic eye in the future is not unreasonable.

Posted by Nicholas Georgette (2)

What is Mitochondrial DNA?

                                          
Image from https://www.newcastle-mitochondria.com/patient-and-public-home-page/what-is-mitochondrial-dna/

Exactly how many people out there know that the mitochondria, commonly known as the powerhouse of the cell, contains its own DNA? This tiny organelle in the cytoplasm of the cell does not just exist to convert energy from food into energy that can be used by the cells . It was not until 1963 that scientists discovered DNA in the mitochondria which was amazing because scientists had thought that DNA only existed in the nucleus until this point. Mitochondrial DNA accounts for a very tiny fraction of genes, only 37 of the 20,000 to 25,000 genes to be exact. Even crazier, mitochondrial DNA is maternally inherited only.

It is unclear as to why paternal mitochondria get essentially wiped from the cell. According to this article,  there was a recent study performed on roundworms that showed a self destruct mechanism in the sperm when it fused with the egg. This study also showed that delaying this self destruct and allowing paternal mitochondria to exist in the embryo led to low survival rates. The self destruct mechanism in roundworms arises from a gene called cps-6 and, if deleted, paternal mitochondria stay around longer in the embryo. This discovery could help lead scientists to better understand diseases caused by the mitochondria that lead to blindness, nerve damage, and even dementia.

Since mitochondria are maternally inherited, it makes it possible to trace maternal ancestries. Companies like 23andMe use the mitochondria to do exactly that. This could make it possible to trace all the way back to what scientists call the "Mitochondrial Eve" who is considered the woman that all humans inherited their mitochondrial DNA from. The technology probably does not exist yet to do so but it may be possible in the future and could answer so many questions. Humans are not the only species on Earth to maternally inherit mitochondria and this method of tracing ancestry could be used on many different animals.

The mitochondria may be famously known as the powerhouse of the cell, however; it is important for much more. Scientists are still trying to figure out many aspects of the mitochondria since it is a relatively new area of interest in the world of biology. Learning more about the mitochondria could be the key behind solving the many diseases caused by changes or defects in mitochondrial DNA.

-Posted by Brianna Luciani (2)

Can This Be The Future of White Rhinos?

     With only two white Rhino females left in the world and no males, this new success of two scientists in creating two embryos of the near-extinct northern white rhino can be the future of this species. A research team from Avantea laboratory, Italy, were able to create two embryos using eggs from the only two white rhino females alive and frozen sperm from dead males of the same species. The species decreased is due to the poaching done in Africa, rhinos are hunted for the horns, which are very popular for different uses in Asia.

     While the numbers of rhino poaching have decreased since 2015 from 1,349 recorded cases to 769 recorded cases in 2018, two and a half rhinos are still killed every single day. In Asia, powdered rhino horn is used in traditional medicine, the horn is touted as a cure for hangovers, cancer, and impotence. It is more commonly used as a status symbol to display success and wealth in Asia. Nowadays, poachers are supported by international criminal gangs that supply them with highly developed equipment to track the rhinos. Most of the time, a gun with a tranquilizer is used, causing the rhinos to fall down, they then cut off the horn leaving the rhino to wake up and bleed to death. Since these poachers are supported by very powerful gangs, they are often armed with guns, which makes it very difficult for anti-poaching teams to combat poachers.

     Richard Ellis, author of “Tiger bone and rhino horn” wrote in 2005 for the EAZA Rhino Campaign’s Info Pack: “It is not clear that rhino horn serves any medicinal purpose whatsoever, but it is a testimony to the power of tradition that millions of people believe that it does. Of course, if people want to believe in prayer, acupuncture or voodoo as a cure for what ails them, there is no reason why they shouldn’t, but if animals are being killed to provide nostrums that have been shown to be useless, then there is a very good reason to curtail the use of rhino horn." Rhino horns are made out of keratin, which is the same material that makes up much of our hair and nails. "Truly, rhino horn is as effective at curing cancer as chewing on your fingernails."

     With only two female white rhinos left, the creation of the embryos is something big. The creation of the embryos was achieved at Cremona's Avantea Laboratories. Five immature egg cells were extracted from each of the remaining females, Najin and Fatu, who live at a conservancy in Kenya. After being incubated, seven of the cells matured and were used for fertilization. Two of the fertilized eggs developed into viable embryos. These embryos are stored in liquid nitrogen and ready to be transferred into a surrogate mother, a white southern rhino, according to us.news.com . Rhinos are important grazers, consuming large amounts of vegetation, which helps shape the African landscape. Their presence benefits other animals and contributes to a healthy balance within the ecosystem. Many organizations are working to conserve the populations of other rhino species so it does not get to this point, where there are only two rhinos left in a particular species. With the amount of traction and awareness that the issue has garnered, hopefully, it leads to a decrease of poaching of all rhino species.

Posted by " Pamela Jimenez"